What Crops Were Exchanged Between the Old and New Worlds?

The exchange of crops between the Old World and the New World was the most consequential single element of the Columbian Exchange, in terms of the number of people it fed. A handful of American crops — potatoes, maize, sweet potatoes, cassava — supported the largest sustained increase in human population in the early modern period, while a handful of Old World crops — wheat, rice, sugarcane, coffee — restructured the agriculture of the Americas and provided the economic basis of the Atlantic slave trade. The crop inventory below is the working list that Crosby, Super, and others have developed. The list is long but the principle is simple: the exchange was vast, it was rapid, and it had effects on every inhabited continent.

The full scope of the exchange is discussed on the Columbian Exchange and the global impact of exploration page; this page inventories the most important crops that moved between the Old World and the New.

Crops from the Old World to the New World

The Old World contributed a long list of staple and luxury crops to the Americas. Spanish, Portuguese, English, French, and Dutch colonists brought most of them, while enslaved Africans carried their own food traditions across the Atlantic in the Atlantic slave trade. Within a few generations, these crops had become central to the agricultural systems and cuisines of the Americas.

Grains and Cereals

Wheat (Triticum aestivum): Native to the Fertile Crescent, wheat became the principal bread grain of temperate regions of the Americas, from the Pampas of Argentina to the Canadian prairies. Spanish colonists brought wheat to Mexico in the 1520s.
Rice (Oryza sativa): Originally from Asia, rice reached the Americas with European and African migrants. It became a major crop in the Carolinas, Louisiana, and Brazil, and a staple for enslaved Africans and their descendants.
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) and millet: African and Asian grains, transported by enslaved Africans to the Americas and grown throughout the tropical regions.
Barley, oats, and rye: Old World cereals used mainly as animal feed, bread grains, and brewing grains by Northern European settlers.

Sugarcane and Tropical Crops

Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum): Native to New Guinea, sugarcane became one of the most economically important crops in the Americas, fueling the plantation economies of the Caribbean and Brazil. Its labor demands drove the expansion of the Atlantic slave trade.
Bananas and plantains (Musa species): Originally from Southeast Asia, bananas reached the Americas via the Canary Islands and became major staples in the tropical lowlands of the Caribbean, Central America, and South America.
Citrus fruits: Oranges, lemons, limes, and grapefruits, all native to South and Southeast Asia, became established through Spanish and Portuguese colonization. The bitter orange reached Hispaniola with Columbus’s second voyage in 1493.
Coffee (Coffea arabica): Native to Ethiopia, coffee was brought to the Americas in the early 18th century and became a major cash crop in Brazil, Colombia, Central America, and the Caribbean.

Vegetables and Fruits

The Old World contributed a long list of vegetables to American gardens and kitchens, including onions, garlic, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, kale, lettuce, carrots, peas, lentils, chickpeas, beets, turnips, radishes, eggplants, and cucumbers. Fruit trees included apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, figs, olives, grapes, dates, pomegranates, and mangoes, all of which became standard in colonial orchards and gardens.

Spices and Stimulants

Black pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg, and ginger were brought from Asia, while tea was introduced to the Americas, though it never became a major commercial crop outside Asia.

Industrial and Forage Crops

Old World industrial and forage crops brought to the Americas included hemp, alfalfa, and various clovers, which became essential to colonial agriculture.

Crops from the New World to the Old World

The flow of crops from the Americas to the Old World was at least as transformative as the reverse. American crops became staples of agriculture across Eurasia and Africa within a few generations of Columbus’s voyages.

Maize (Corn)

Maize (Zea mays), the great American grain, is arguably the single most globally important food plant to emerge from the Columbian Exchange. Domesticated in central Mexico thousands of years ago, maize was the staple of the Aztec, Maya, and many other indigenous civilizations. Brought to Europe by Columbus, it spread across the continent, becoming a staple in Portugal, Spain, Italy, and the Balkans. From Europe, maize was carried to Africa by Portuguese traders, where it became a major crop. By the 18th century, it had reached China and Southeast Asia.

Potatoes

Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), native to the Andes, were brought to Europe in the late 1500s by Spanish conquistadors. The potato produces more calories per acre than any Old World crop in cool, moist climates, and it can be grown on marginal land. It became a staple in Ireland, Germany, Poland, and the Russian Empire, supporting major population growth. The Irish dependence on the potato, which proved so tragically vulnerable to blight in the 1840s, was a direct consequence of the Columbian Exchange.

Sweet Potatoes

Sweet potatoes (Ipomoea batatas) reached China in the late 16th century, possibly through the Manila galleon trade, and became a major food crop in southern China. They also spread to Africa, where they became a staple in many regions.

Cassava (Manioc)

Cassava (Manihot esculenta), a root crop native to South America, was carried to Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century. It became a staple across much of sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in the tropical forest zones. Today it is among the most important staple foods in the world, feeding hundreds of millions of people in Africa, Asia, and South America.

Tomatoes, Peppers, and Squash

Tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), native to the Andes, were brought to Europe in the 16th century and gradually became central to Mediterranean cooking, particularly in Italy and Spain. Chili peppers (Capsicum species) spread to Africa and India, transforming the cuisines of West Africa, Ethiopia, India, Korea, China, and Southeast Asia. Squash and pumpkins (Cucurbita species) became staples across Eurasia and Africa.

Beans, Peanuts, and Other Staples

Common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and lima beans (Phaseolus lunatus) became staples from Mexico to India. Peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), native to South America, were carried to Africa by Portuguese traders and became a major crop in West Africa, later reaching North America with enslaved Africans.

Cacao (Chocolate)

Cacao (Theobroma cacao), the source of chocolate, was prized by the Aztec and Maya as the “food of the gods.” It was brought to Europe by the Spanish in the 16th century, where it was initially a luxury good consumed as a drink. The European demand for chocolate led to the establishment of cacao plantations in the Caribbean, West Africa, and other tropical regions.

Tobacco

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) was brought to Europe by the Spanish and Portuguese in the 16th century and rapidly became a global commodity. The Virginia tobacco colony in North America was founded on tobacco cultivation, and the slave labor used to produce it drove the expansion of the Atlantic slave trade.

Other Notable New World Crops

Other important New World crops that spread globally included pineapples, vanilla, sunflowers, rubber, quinoa, amaranth, avocados, papayas, guavas, cashews, and chayote, all of which became important in regional cuisines and economies around the world.

The Long-Term Impact

The exchange of crops between the Old World and the New World transformed agriculture, diets, and populations on every inhabited continent. American crops like maize, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and cassava supported major population growth in Europe, Asia, and Africa, while Old World crops like wheat, rice, and sugarcane became staples in the Americas. The Columbian Exchange was, in the longer perspective of Crosby, Super, and others, the beginning of the modern global food system, and the foods on our tables today are the direct legacy of the biological transfers that began with Christopher Columbus and his successors.